Forms a sub-millimeter gray coating on the walls at the far end of the Chaguaramo Saloon. It is associated with koktaite.

Forms a very small patch in a well-aerated and protected niche on the wall of this quartzite cave. The components are believed to come from the decaying organic matter of the surface.

This is the first new mineral for science discovered in a Venezuelan cave. It occurs in a quartzite cave where it forms crusts and efflorescences on the walls in patches of about 0.5 to 1 cm thickness and up to a few square meters extent. In some cases it is clearly seen that the forming solutions seeped from the bedding planes. Under the optical microscope and SEM (Urbani, 1977b), the mineral consists of an aggregate of contorted flakes. It is possible that the nitrate, chlorine and part of the potassium, come from the organic matter from the vegetation and soil at the top of the mountain, while the aluminum and potassium come from the weathering of the trace amounts of plagioclase and micas disseminated in the rock. As the solutions are very diluted its formation requires the evaporation of large amounts of water.

These caves are developed below the hard lateritic iron crust that covers the surface of the hill. Goethite speleothems are present as centimeter long stalactites, small stalagmites, flowstones and coatings.

Present as coatings and stalagmites including the largest reported goethite stalagmite in the world with about 3 m height and 1 m diameter.

Crust of a few square decimeters in area and up to 4 cm thick on the wall of the weathered quartzitic bedrock.

In 1978 several small caves where visited in those glaciers and ice stalactites were observed. Currently, most of those glaciers have melted.

Appears in wrinkled and earthy stalactites up to 15 cm long and 20 cm in diameter at its base. It is black, clearly contrasting with the reddish colour of the quartzitic bedrock. A chemical analysis gives the following components in order of abundance: MnO 42.1%, H₂O 8.4%, Al₂O₃ 6.2%, SiO₂ 5.2%, Na₂O 2.1%, P₂O₅ 1.0%, Fe₂O₃ 0.2%, LiO2 0.2%, with trace amounts of MgO and K₂O.

Appears as crusts of up to 4 mm thickness covering the limestone walls with a shiny and botryoidal shape and near bat guano deposits. A partial chemical analysis shows CaO 15.2%, Fe₂O₃ 12.4%, SiO₂ 9.8 %, P₂O₅ 5.4%, Al₂O₃ 4.4 %, with smaller amounts of Na₂O, K₂O and MgO (MnO was not determined). The sample is amorphous by X rays but the heated sample studied by P. J. Bridge (Australia) suggests it to be maghemite, possibly by alteration of goethite which is also probably present.

Forms black pisolites in a nest of more than a hundred of them, mainly of 3-5 mm in diameter but one reached 3 cm. The origin of such rare speleothems is related to the reducing and acid environment of the forest soil surrounding this limestone cave, which allows for the migration of Fe and Mn in the reduced state and their precipitation as chelated-metallic compounds in the aerated cave conditions.

In this cave two different occurrences of these compounds are found: There are millimetric-sized black pisolites having iron is the major constituent element and lesser amounts of manganese, with up to 30% of organic matter, and with an XRD peak of hydroxyl-apatite. The second occurrence is under the active stream near Salón del Chaguaramo the rock is covered with red to black 1-2 mm thick crusts. They are composed mainly of iron and minor amounts of manganese, also with 20-35% organic matter and minor amounts of mangano-berzelite.

Has been found in two occurrence types. The first as a 0.5-1.5 mm thick dark-brown to black and shiny coating on the limestone floor and stream clasts on a passage that during the rainy season must be under water. Under the optical microscope it is seen as multilayers. A qualitative EDX analysis shows the presence mainly of Mn, Fe with minor amounts of Al, Si and Ca. The second type is mixed with hydroxyl-apatite and will be explained under this mineral.

Same as in the first type of the previous occurrences.

Appears as 0.5 cm thick black and earthy coating on the limestone bedrock in a place that is under water during the rainy season.

Same as the previous occurrence but colour is rather reddish and purple.

Identified as a constituent of a dusty deposit of decomposed bat guano associated with whitlockite and gypsum.

Identified in a light orange powder and very light material produced by decomposition of bat guano, associated with gypsum. The material was collected under a calcitic crust in an area previously mined for guano. This and the samples of other minerals of the apatite group from this cave were collected near the contact of the guano material with the dolomitic bedrock.

Inside a mineralized bat guano deposit as in the previous locality.

Same type of occurrence as the previous locality.

Also as a powdery material from the decomposition of bat guano.

Same occurrence as carbonate-apatite.

Same occurrence as carbonate-apatite.

Dark brown and earthy 0.5 cm thick coating on the limestone bedrock. Fresh bat guano is observed nearby. Associated to smaller amounts of chlor-apatite.

As dark-brown crusts and rough centimetric stalactites. Associated with gypsum, hydroxyl-apatite, fluor-apatite, whitlockite and calcite. This cave is inhabited by a large bat colony.

Same as explained under carbonate-fluor-apatite.

Dark brown 0.5 cm thick coating on the limestone bedrock. Fresh bat guano is observed nearby. Associated to carbonate-hydroxyl-apatite which is the main phase.

Appears as rough stalagmites (the largest is 60 cm high and 40 cm diameter in its base) and also as coatings and flowstones on the walls of this quartzite cave. Colour is yellow, yellowish brown and reddish with concentric layering and flaky appearance. Under XRD appears mainly amorphous. It is very soft and when exposed for several weeks in the laboratory environment (50-60% relative humidity) it disintegrates at touch. A chemical analysis of this material gave SiO₂ 11.0%, Al₂O₃ 10.7%, P₂O₅ 4.9%, Na₂O 0.6%, H₂O 22.2% and minor amounts of Fe₂O₃ and K₂O. The remainder, to 100%, is organic matter. Due to the amorphous nature of the mineral its identification is not certain and probably the high silica and organic matter content may be explained by the presence of allophane (hydrous aluminum silicate) and pigotite (organic mineral). The caves develop under a dense forest having a deep organic soil and contain colonies of bats of the family Phyllostomidae, which may account for the presence of phosphorous and organic components while Al and Si may be provided by the quartzite weathering.

As a flowstone on the inclined floor of the cave with an area of about 1 m². It appears in the field as a resinous material, which when dried is reddish to brown. The surface of the flowstone is covered by many small rimstone dams of 0.5 cm height and with pools of about 1 cm². The identification is not certain and the material may be a mixture of evansite-allophane-pigotite. The cave is small and unlike the Urutany caves, no signs of bats or bat guano was seen, therefore the components needed to form these minerals may come from the decaying vegetation and the weathering of the quartzite which has traces of feldspars and micas.

Same as explained under carbonate-fluor-apatite.

Appears as 0.5 cm thick light brown crust protruding 1-2 cm from the limestone bedrock wall. Found on the ceiling of the cave in a place that remains as an air-bag at moments of water flood. Appears at the would-be air-water interface above which the rock is coated with calcite, while below it is covered by clay and partially decomposed organic matter. Detrital quartz and illite-mica are mixed with the phosphate.

In a 2 mm thick gray to brown crust associated with calcite, gypsum, hydroxyl-apatite, carbonate-hydroxyl-apatite and whitlockite.

Identified as a constituent of a dusty deposit of decomposed bat guano associated with hydroxyl-apatite and gypsum.

This was the first Venezuelan cave locality where a phosphate was identified. It appears as coatings on calcite flowstones and limestone bedrock in the small passages identified as HI-4, 5 and 6 in SVE (1968). Such passages host have small bat colonies. The crusts are black to dark brown up to 6 mm thickness but usually they are at the scale of 1-3 mm.

As brown to black 1-3 mm thick crusts directly on the dolomitic bedrock and other calcite speleothems. The cave hosted a large bat population. This mineral and other five phosphates reported in this cave also occur in the contact between bedrock and the guano deposit.

In one of the farthest northwestern passages of this cave, now the largest in Venezuela, there is an irregular black to very dark brown mass of up to 5 cm thick and covering about 0.5 m². The XRD pattern is that of a Mn-Fe rich amorphous mineral associated with well-crystallized hydroxy-apatite. Qualitative EDX analyses show the presence of Mn, Fe, Ca, Al, P and Si.

Appears as dark brown to black 1-3 mm thick crusts on the limestone bedrock. Qualitative EDX analysis shows that the external surface is rich in Mn and Fe, but inside only Ca and P were detected. Under XRD the hydroxyl-apatite pattern shows broad peaks suggesting a low crystallinity.

As brown to black 1-3 mm thick crusts on calcite speleothems in "Salón del Arpa" and on the dolomitic marble bedrock. Gypsum is also identifiable but rather than a chemical in situ, it comes from the large amount of dust raised by the visitors of this very dry and dusty cave. A detailed study of the fresh to decomposed bat guano is under way and a 3 m deep exploratory pit was excavated and sampled in which this mineral has been identified associated with whithlockite and gypsum.

As brown 1-1.5 mm thick crusts on calcite speleothems and on the limestone bedrock.

Same as previous occurrence.

Same as previous occurrence but yellowish brown.

Same as previous occurrence but associated with whitlockite.

As brown to black and sometimes reddish 1-3 mm thick crusts directly on the calcite bedrock. The mineral is found in the contact between the calcite bedrock and what was the former guano deposit which was exploited as fertilizer.

As brown to black-brown 2 mm thick crusts covering a 1 m² stalagmitic form found in the higher part of an ascending passage inhabited by a large bat colony with air temperature of 35°C. Under SEM, diatoms are visible and also many filaments (fungus and algae).

As brown to gray 2-8 mm crusts associated with calcite, gypsum, fluor-apatite, carbonate-hydroxyl-apatite and whitlockite.

As dark brown to black 1-1½ mm thick crust directly on a calcite flowstone. Found in the uppermost passage inhabited by bats.

Dark brown coating 2 mm thick on calcite flowstone. Related to bat guano.

This is a 30 m long cave in weathered garnet amphibolite. Leucophosphite is found as roughly 0.1 mm sized rounded nodules concentrically interlayered with opal in coralloid fingers. Under the binocular microscope the mineral shows bright yellowish to red colours.

Identified as a contituent of a dusty deposit of decomposed bat guano associated with hydroxyl-apatite, whitlockite and gypsum.

As orange brown moist and soft coatings, 5 mm thick and covering small areas of a few square centimeters on the cave walls. Under SEM it appears as an accumulation of 5-10 m m apple-shaped forms. Another type of occurrence is inside a decomposed bat guano deposit associated with gypsum, hydroxyl-apatite, brushite, ardealite and struvite.

Identified in a 5 cm long stalactite with concentric layers associated with gypsum and calcite. Also in dark brown crusts with calcite, gypsum, hydroxyl-apatite, fluor-apatite and carbonate-hydroxyl-apatite.

As 1-2 mm orange-brown crusts on flowstone with hydroxyl-apatite.

Associated with gypsum in a small guano deposit formed by droppings of birds (Swifts) under their nest.

This was the first Venezuelan cave where coralloid opal speleothems were studied. Under thin section crystallized fibrous quartz (chalcedony) are seen intermixed with the opal and minor calcite layers. The speleothems are active.

This is the first opal occurrence found in a Venezuelan cave but as a very inconspicuous HCl insoluble residue of dolomite speleothems.

With a wide variety of coralloid and cauliflower forms of up to several square meters of coverage. Also as metric flowstones mainly covered with coralloid surfaces. The most spectacular forms are soda-straws and stalactites as much as 35 cm long with a diameter of 2.5 cm at the upper part. This stalactitic opal is translucent and glassy in comparison with the usual darker and grayish coralloids. Under SEM all show filament structures suggesting an origin induced by biologic activity (Fig. 1).

Same type of occurrence as the previous locality but with rather rare stalactitic forms.

Same features as Sima de la Lluvia occurrence but here a complete sequence has been documented from soft, wet and dark bacterial mats of up to 25 cm in diameter and 1-3 cm thick on the walls where some seeping water was available, to dryer parts with some small coralloids, to very dry and older parts with well-developed coralloids, suggesting a biologic induced precipitation of the opal. The bacteria were studied by Kunicka-Goldfinger (1982).

See under chalcedony.

As coralloid and cauliflower forms.

Mainly as coralloid forms, some of several square meters in area. Here the study of a thin section of a coralloid reveals the presence of former living beings that also suggests a biologic origin.

At the caves of the Aonda Platform opal coralloids are always more frequently found near the entrances in the penumbra zone with algae covering parts of the bedrock. Those coralloids are the ones that show more abundant filament structures under SEM (Fig. 2, a,b,c,d), but they also also occur in samples collected deeper inside the caves (Fig. 2,e,f). One SEM image (Fig. 2f) shows a tube structure which suggests that the opal precipitaded around a filament when the organism was alive. Similar structures have been recently found related to the deposition of iron, manganese and gold (Ghiorse & Hirsch, 1979; Bischoff et al., 1992).

As coralloid speleothems. Under SEM all samples viewed show numerous organic structures, usually filament-shaped, suggesting a biologic induced origin.

As millimeter-sized rough coralloids, mainly near the entrances of the caves (Fig. 3).

Found as 0.5-1.5 cm long coralloids developed in a weathered garnet-amphibolite. See under leucophosphite.

As 1 mm thick leathery sheets and crusts on the walls and fractures. This cave developed along a joint in quartz-mica-albite-schists. The sheets are light brown but also reddish due to iron-oxide staining. They are flexible and associated with minor amounts of calcite.

Appears in an elongated deposit following a fracture in the ceiling of the cave. The mineral shows a cauliflower-shaped deposit in a 1 m long section and about 3 cm wide and 1-1.5 cm thick. It is soft, humid and plastic. By XRD it appears with low-crystallinity. Qualitative EDX analysis shows the presence of Si, Ca and Mg and the sample when heated to 1200°C is transformed to diopside (Ca, Mg-pyroxene). Ranging out from the moist to drier and older parts of the occurrence sepiolite becomes more crystalline and becomes associated with increasing amounts of aragonite.

It occurs as a 4 mm thick white and chalky efflorescence on the wall of a small tectonic cave opened on quartz-feldspar metasandstone and metaconglomerate bedrock.

This mineral is present in light-blue spots on the marble wallrock of the Chaguaramo Saloon, it has millimetric thickness and mixed with hydroxyl-apatite. It is likely that the ammonium required for this mineral and for koktaite is supplied by organic matter carried by the water into the cave from the soil of surrounding forest.

Found on top of shale fragments from a collapse inside the middle level of this cave opened in Paleocene limestones. Looks white to slightly brown efflorescences of up to three mm thickness, soft and dusty, no traces of gypsum were found. This level of the cave is very dry and shows temperatures up to 28°C. The finding and analysis took place in 1983 but in 1996 only gypsum was found in the same spot, suggesting that bassanite formed directly in this dry environment and latter hydrated to gypsum.

Shows very delicate white fibrous and powdery efflorescences one cm thick covering areas of several square decimeters in very dry areas near the cave entrance. The bedrock is dolomitic marble.

Found in two cm thick crusts of massive epsomite with coarsely fibrous nature and transparent crystals. The surface is covered by a white powdery mineral identified as hexahydrite produced by the in situ dehydration of epsomite.

This was the first Venezuelan cave where this common cave mineral was identified by White et al. (1963). This mineral occurs in a very wide variety of morphologies of white to transparent crystals forming flowers, frostworks, needle-like crystals, cotton surfaces, cockscomb stalagmites, crusts on walls and ceilings making up sparkling passages, and extraordinary "hair" hanging more than 3 m that can be moved by air blown onto them.

Found in several places of the main passage as gray-colored crusts of up to one cm thick with perpendicular fibers.

Here two types of occurrences are found, one is as very rare layers 1-2 cm thick of almost transparent fibers, the other, more common one, is as white to yellowish powdery material associated with brushite and minerals of the apatite group. Both occur inside a decomposed bat guano deposit which was exploited for fertilizer.

Appears as centimetric sized flowers.

As small efflorescences on the walls near the entrance. The cave is developed in calcitic marble with visible pyrite crystals.

As small millimeter-sized white crusts on the walls.

Same as previous occurrence.

As efflorescences up to 2 mm thick at prominent high evaporative places of the bedrock. Colour may vary from transparent to reddish-colored by iron oxides. Individual crystals are about 0.5 to 0.05 mm. The cave opens in the Late Cretaceous black limestones of the Querecual Formation with high pyrite content.

As the most abundant mineral related to a guano deposit and found in light-colored powdery masses and dust. Associated with phosphates.

Same as the previous locality.

Part of a moonmilk assemblage as small crystals of 10-30 m m (40%) associated with dolomite (55%).

Crusts of up to 2.5 cm thick with transparent to white fibers perpendicular to the cave walls.

Same as previous occurrence.

As crusts of up to 0.5 cm thick, white and relatively hard. Also associated in trace amounts with hexahydrite. The bedrock are subarkoses of the San Juan Formation (Late Cretaceous).

As a 1-2 mm thick powdery and irregular crust on the vertical wall of a 3 m trench on a clay-silt sediment fill formed about 15 years ago (30% smectite, 30% kaolinite, 25% illite-mica, 15% quartz).

Appears in small stalactites and millimetric wall coatings associated with calcite, hydroxyl-apatite, carbonate-hydroxyl-apatite, fluor-apatite and whitlockite.

As an in situ dehydration product of epsomite in this very dry cave.

White and soft eflorescences of 5 mm thick with fibers perpendicular to the cave wall. Since no traces of epsomite have been found, it is assumed that the mineral formed directly under a highly evaporative environment and not as a dehydration product of epsomite as in the previous locality. It is associated with traces of gypsum. The bedrock are subarkoses of the San Juan Formation (Late Cretaceous) with traces of pyrite in some siltstone-shaly interlayers.

Appears mixed with hydroxyl-apatite and halite in pale-gray spots on the marble bedrock. As for the source of the required ammonium see the comment under ammonium-jarosite.

This is the first report of this mineral in a cave environment and is found in red to reddish-brown 1-2 mm thick coatings on the limestone bedrock under the influence of an active stream. It is associated with amorphous Fe-Mn oxide-hydroxides. The provenance of arsenic is unknown.

"Mud and sand castle" stalagmites have been observed in the Gran Salón del Derrumbe from El Guácharo cave.

Inside a predominantly sandy deposit that fills one of the passages there are rounded concretions forming grape-shaped accumulations. The cementing material is calcite, which includes detritic quartz, microcline, muscovite, plagioclase, opaque and clay minerals.

This cave showed the best vermiculations observed in Venezuela, now completely vanished due to touching and rubbing by thousand of persons that visit the cave annually. They were of the hieroglyphic type.

Here areas of about 0.5 m² are covered by hieroglyphic vermiculations very near oil-bird (Steatornis caripensis) nests.

Irregular millimetric to centimetric sized hieroglyphic and leopard's spots types of vermiculations covering several square meters are found on the wallrock at the lower entrance of the cave. The material is composed of clay (illite-mica), some gypsum and green algae.

Plant roots have penetrated the first section of this small cave ataching themselves to the subvertical wallrock; subsequently they were covered by calcite. Since the original root has decayed what remains are pipe-shaped casts attached to the wall. The external diameter varies from 1 to 3 cm while the internal hole is less than 1 cm.

This is a cave with many calcite stalactites and flowstones but now mostly inactive and in the process of degradation. During one of the 1965-1966 visits calcium carbide was dumped on the floor of the innermost part of the cave, in 1995 on such dump were observed two irregular 1.5 cm high vertical calcite fingers 3-6 mm in diameter. Under SEM the surface appears like a smooth polygonal pavement (Fig. 4, a,b), while at a broken surface it looks like dogtooth spar crystals of micrometer size (Fig. 4,c,d).

Combustion of bat guano started in 1977 with emission of "smoke" at the upper entrance of the cave which was mainly visible during the rainy season. A year later when the cave was visited, at a depth of 0.5 m in the former bat guano deposit the temperature was above 100°C. The residual material was identified as margarite and gypsum.

Here a bat deposit also burned leaving irregular slags masses of up to 15 cm³. The material is very light and porous with a metallic luster and iridescent colors. It is amorphous under XRD.